Geology

Subsea minerals have been sampled in the EEZs of many Pacific Nations, indicating that deep-sea mining industries may be possible in many different states.

Based upon publicly available exploration plans, we estimated when polymetallic nodule mine sites are likely to start production, and consequently estimated likely metal production

Both the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and the Cook Islands EEZ contain polymetallic nodules that appear superficially similar. However, there are differences in composition between the two zones that critically impact project economics.

Land mining and deep sea mining both have significant benefits and impacts. We compare both mining options across major impact categories.

Polymetallic sulphide deposits form at hydrothermal vent sites, and are rich sources of metals such as copper, zinc, gold and silver.

Polymetallic nodules are small spheroidal "rocks" that form over millions on years on the deep seabed. They consist of large amounts of precious metals, and present a compelling prospect for sea bed mining.

Cobalt-Rich Crusts are formed by metal minerals precipitating out of seawater to form crusts.