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Nauru is an interesting additional inclusion, ranked 10th equal in terms of international activity (alongside such notable countries as Brazil, Cuba and Singapore).

Nauru is a small island nation in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, with a population of slightly more than 12,000, whose President has spoken at length about the risks and dangers of climate change to his people and country.

Nauru sponsors a single exploration licence for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone for NORI, a subsidiary of The Metals Company. This places this small nation at the absolute forefront of deep-sea mining.

Of the top 9 countries active in exploring for subsea minerals in international waters, the United Kingdom is joint 4th overall (alongside France, Germany, India, Japan and Poland) because it holds two licences for deep-sea mining in international waters.

Despite supporting a moratorium on deep-sea mining, the UK sponsors two licences for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone for UK Seabed Resources, which is now owned by Loke.

The Polish Government holds licences for seafloor massive sulphides along the mid-Atlantic Ocean Ridge, and Poland is a member of Interoceanmetal Joint Organization, alongside Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechia, Poland, and Slovakia, and thereby holds a partial license for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone.

Japan has historically been a major supporter of subsea surveys and research; particularly in and around the Cook Islands via SOPAC / JICA. They are active in their EEZ (see our report on polymetallic nodules near Minamitorishima) as well as in international waters.

Japan holds licences in international waters via 2 entities; JOGMEC and DORD. DORD holds licences for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, whilst JOGMEC holds licenses for cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Western Pacific Ocean.

India is extremely active in research and exploration for subsea minerals, and holds 2 licenses for subsea minerals in international waters. The Deep Ocean mission, launched in 2021, has a budget of around $500 million to develop technology and resources both in their EEZ and in international waters.

India's Varaha harvester has been developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), and was successfully tested in 2022 at a depth of 5270m in the Central Indian Ocean.

India holds licenses for polymetallic nodules in the Indian Ocean and seafloor massive sulphides in the Central Indian Ocean.

Germany holds licenses for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and seafloor massive sulphides in the Central Indian Ocean via the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Note that Germany supports a precautionary pause on deep-sea mining.

France holds licenses for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone and seafloor massive sulphides in the mid-Atlantic Ocean Ridge via Ifremer - the French national institute for ocean science and technology

Note that France supports a ban on deep-sea mining.

The Republic of Korea is a close third in terms of international subsea minerals activity, as measured by the number of licences held in international waters.

Korea currently holds 3 licences covering all 3 subsea mineral types, and these licences are all held directly by the government of the Republic of Korea. This includes licences for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, cobalt-rich crusts in the prime crust zone of the Pacific Ocean, and seafloor massive sulphides along the mid-Indian Ocean ridge

The Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology (KIOST) has successfully developed and tested a number of polymetallic nodule harvesters, including MineRo I and II. These have been tested and successfully harvested around 1500t of polymetallic nodules from the seafloor.

The Russian Federation is second in terms of international subsea minerals activity.

Russia currently holds 3 licences covering all 3 subsea mineral types. These licences are held via JSC Yuzhmorgeologiya for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, the Government of Russia itself for seafloor massive sulphides along the mid-Atlantic ridge, and via the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation for cobalt-rich crusts in the Pacific Ocean.

Russia is also part of the Interoceanmetal Joint Organization, alongside Bulgaria, Cuba, Czechia, Poland, and Slovakia, and thereby holds a partial license for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone.

China is the world's most active country in subsea mineral exploration, in terms of the number of subsea mineral licences in International Waters.

China has developed a number of different polymetallic nodule harvesters, including the Kaituo 2 (successfully tested to 4100m in the Western Pacific) and the Kun Long 500.

China currently holds 5 licences covering all 3 subsea mineral types of polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts and seafloor massive sulphides. These licences are held via 3 different entities; COMRA, Beijing Pioneer and China Minmetals Corporation.

COMRA holds licences for polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, seafloor massive sulphides along the Southwest Indian Ocean ridge and cobalt-rich crusts in the prime crust zone:

China Minmetals holds licences in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone for harvesting polymetallic nodules. They submitted a consultation for their EIS in April of 2024, with a view to testing their nodule harvester.

Finally, Beijing Pioneer Hi-tech Development Corporation Limited holds licences in the Prime Crust Zone for harvesting polymetallic nodules and cobalt-rich crusts. They also submitted an EIS to the ISA in April 2024 for consultation.

The number, range and diversity of activity in different areas, with different mineral types, and with three well-funded but competing organizations means that China currently leads the world in terms of subsea mineral development.

* 1 polymetallic nodule contract via "Interoceanmetal Joint Organization", which is sponsored by Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Poland, Russian Federation and Slovakia